History Of The Dna And Forensics Criminology Essay

History Of The Dna And Forensics Criminology Essay Wyman established the foundation for the concept with the hallmark observation and White (1980) of a polymorphic DNA locus characterized by a number of variable-length restriction fragments called restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs). The history of DNA fingerprinting, is even more recent, dating from 1985 with the paper Hypervariable Minisatellite Regions in Human DNA by Alex Jeffreys et-al (Kirby, 1998 p.19) In 1985, a routine investigation into the structure of a human gene led to a breakthrough discovery that portions of the DNA structure of certain genes are as unique to each individual as fingerprints. Alec Jeffrey and his colleagues at Leicester University, England, responsible for these revelations, named the process for isolating and reading these DNA markers DNA fingerprinting. As researchers uncovered new approaches and variations to the original Jeffreys technique, the terms DNA profiling and DNA typing became applied to describe this relatively new technology (Saferstein, 2011p.226). The theory that a criminal perpetrator leaves a part of himself at the scene of a crime and takes a piece of the crime site with him was postulated by Edmund Locard Lyon,of France, who established the worlds first crime lab. Referred to as the Locard exchange principle, this idea, along with the need to reconstruct what took place at the site of a criminal act, is the basic rationale behind crime- scene investigation (Fisher, p 4). The term associative evidence describes traces of things that, pursuant to the Locard principle, connect a suspect to or associate him with the scene of an offense (Fisher, 2008 p. 4) Benefits of DNA in society Through the discovery of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), the deciphering of its structure and the decoding of its genetic information our understanding of the underlying concepts of inheritance changed and expanded. Molecular biologists are unraveling the basic structure of genes at an incredible pace; we are now able to create new products through genetic engineering and develop diagnostic tools and treatments for genetic disorders (Saferstein, 2011 p. 266). How DNA affects investigations? The legal system, in both the criminal and civil arenas, may well be revolutionized by the advent of forensic DNA typing. One state trial judge has written that DNA typing can constitute the single greatest advance in the search for truth, and the goal of convicting the guilty and acquitting the innocent, since the advent of cross-examination. People v. Wesley, 140 Misc.2d 306, 533 N.Y.S.2d 643 (Co. Ct. 1988) (Kirby, 1993 p. 206). DNA identification analysis, identity testing, profiling, fingerprinting, typing, or genotyping refers to the characterization of one or more relatively rare features of an individuals genome or hereditary makeup. Every human, has a characteristic phenotype or physical appearance because each possesses a unique hereditary composition. An exception to this rule is identical twins, because they possess the same unique genotype but, because of the consequences of developmental events, have faintly different phenotypes. The DNA of any individual is identical whether extracted from hair bulbs, white blood cells, or a semen specimen. The uniqueness and identical DNA structure within all tissues of the same body provide the basis for DNA profiling (Kirby, 1993 p.18). The forensic applications of DNA typing are limited only by precaution and alertness of the criminal mind. Regardless of the type of crime committed, whatever trace evidence is appropriate for DNA analysis, left behind by the p erpetrator, is later recovered by the police. Forensic test results can prove to be important investigative tools. Most frequently, such evidence will be found because of violent crimes (Kirby, 1993 p.207). What Controversies are there in the use of DNA evidence in criminal cases? The inventor of DNA fingerprinting Professor Sir Alec Jeffreys, recently launched a candid attack on the way the genetic profiles of suspects in the UK who have been cleared of any crime are still stored by the authorities. He believes that the practice of storing the genetic profiles of suspects who have not been found guilty of a crime is a step too far. Professor Jeffreys said, The practice was discriminatory and measures should be taken to safeguard against particular individuals or groups being targeted. In addition, he called for the creation of a national database, storing the profiles of the entire UK population, managed by an independent body. He said, If were all on the database, were all in exactly the same boat the issue of discrimination disappears. Another potential problem according to a number of scientists is that as the database grows the probability of two very similar profiles from two different people emerging increases (Anonymous, 2002). These arguments are ech oed in the United States as well. For police and prosecutors, DNA science has been a double-edged sword; Thousands of rapists and killers have been identified by DNA and sent to prison. On the other hand, DNA technology also reveals flaws in other forensic sciences such as bite-mark and hair follicle identification. It has also exposed weaknesses and corruption in the way crimes are investigated (Fisher, J. 2008 p 231). What Benefits are there in the use of DNA Evidence? The forensic science community finds DNA of great value because forensic scientists now have the ability to link biological evidence such as blood, semen, hair, or tissue to a single individual with confidence (Saferstein, 2011 p. 266). What improvements can be made in the use of DNA in Criminalistics? In an effort to improve the crime-fighting potential of DNA profiling, the FBI initiated a pilot project called Combined DNA Index System (CODIS). The program would link data banks across the country housing computerized collections of DNA profiles of arrested felons. Investigators would be able to submit an unknown DNA profile for identification by activating one computer instead of running the evidence through dozens of statewide systems. An evidence submission that matches a DNA profile in one of the databases is called a hit, when such a computer match is made; it is tantamount to solving the crime and proving who committed it. CODIS promised a crime-fighting potential equal to the FBIs Integrated Automatic Fingerprint Identification System. Even better, the criminals caught by CODIS would be the worst of the worst- rapists, child molesters, and sexually motivated killers serial offenders all (Fisher, 2008 pp. 231-2). The National DNA Index (NDIS) contains over 9,535,059 offender profiles and 366,762 forensic profiles as of March 2011. Ultimately, the success of the CODIS program will be measured by the crimes it helps to solve. CODISs primary metric, the Investigation Aided, tracks the number of criminal investigations where CODIS has added value to the investigative process. As of March 2011, CODIS has produced over 141,000 hits assisting in more than 135,500 investigations (FBI) The United States is having a backlog handling all of the data being submitted to the forensic laboratories. There are two types: (1) casework backlogs and (2) convicted offender and arrestee DNA backlogs (DNA.gov , n.d.). The demand for DNA testing is rising primarily because of increased awareness of the potential for DNA evidence to help solve cases. The demand is coming from two primary sources: (1) the increased amount of DNA evidence collected in criminal cases and (2) the expanded effort to collect DNA samples from convicted felons and arrested persons. According to a 2010 report from the National Instituted of Justice Until laboratories can meet the rising demand for DNA services and until their capacity to process samples is greater than the demand, backlogs will continue to exist and increase in proportion to the demand for services (Nelson, 2010). Crime laboratories are processing more cases than ever before, however expanded capacity to meet the increased demand (Nelson, 2010). What is in the future of DNA in society and what benefits will they bring to the criminalistics and forensic investigations? In the future, we will be able to determine the color of a persons hair and eyes though a sample of DNA taken from blood, sperm, saliva or other biological materials relevant in forensic case work. Criminals can run, but they might be leaving some incriminating evidence behind. Scientists have figured out how to use DNA information to predict a persons hair color. In the near future, DNA from blood, sperm or saliva samples being used to help track down an unknown perpetrator. Dutch researchers from Erasmus Medical Center and their collaborators in Poland have discovered 13 genetic markers in 11 genes that can be used to predict hair color. The research was published in the journal Human Genetics, where scientists, claim they can predict if a person has red hair or black hair with 90% accuracy. When it comes to predicting if a person has blond or brown hair, the scientists claim to be 80% accurate. The scientists can also predict different shades of hair color, so people with dirty blond hair or other unusual colors can be tracked down too (Dickinson, B. 2011). The necessary DNA can be taken from blood, sperm, saliva or other biological materials relevant in forensic casework. Prof. Manfred Kayser, Chair of the Department of Forensic Molecular Biology at Erasmus MC, who led the study, stated, That we are now making it possible to predict different hair colors from DNA represents a major breakthrough as, so far, only red hair color (which is rare) could be estimated from DNA. For our research, we made use of the DNA and hair color information of hundreds of Europeans and investigated genes previously known to influence the differences in hair color. We identified 13 DNA markers from 11 genes that are informative to predict a persons hair color. Predictability Prof. Ate Kloosterman, of the Department of Human Biological Traces at the Netherlands Forensic Institute (NFI) said: This research lays the scientific basis for the development of a DNA test for hair color prediction. A validated DNA test system for hair color shall become available for forensic research in the not too distant future (Erasmus Medical Center 2011). This study might pave the way for yet another DNA test that would give forensic scientists more tools to crack unsolved mysteries. Predicting human phenotypes like a persons hair color would certainly give crime fighters an edge Dickinson, B. 2011). DNA and its application to Criminalistics are changing the way evidence is pursued. The past decade has seen enormous advances in this powerful criminal justice tool: deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA. DNA can be used to identify criminals with incredible accuracy when biological evidence exists. Similarly, DNA evidence can be implemented to clear suspects and exonerate persons mistakenly accused or convicted of crimes. DNA technology is increasingly vital to ensuring accuracy and fairness in the criminal justice system. We take for granted all the progress that has been made in the last few decades due to new breakthroughs in science. DNA has not only affected science and medicine in our society but it also has affected the judicial system, and the way we conduct our criminal cases in the courts of the United States.

Ethical Dilemna – Law Enforcement

Incident Review1. What is the ethical issue or problem? Identify the issue succinctly. The ethical issue would be rather to arrest the man for domestic violence or driving while intoxicated due to the test that the officers performed and what they observed.2. What are the most important facts? Which facts have the most bearing on the ethical decision presented? Include any important potential economic, social, or political pressures, and exclude inconsequential facts.The most important facts is that the car was still warm and they observed the man drop something out of his pockets that looked like keys. The wife stated that she had not driven the vehicle all day and the man stated that he had not driven the car since he arrived 4 hours ago. The officer performed a sobriety test and a preliminary alcohol screening test which revealed that the man’s blood alcohol was twice the legal limit. There was also a domestic violence call which is the reason the officer responded to the h ouse.3. Identify each claimant (key actor) who has an interest in the outcome of this ethical issue. From the perspective of the moral agent—the individual contemplating an ethical course of action—what obligation is owed to the claimant? Why? Claimant(key actor) Obligation (owed to the claimant) Perspective (What does the claimant hope will happen?) Husband Fidelity, beneficence The husband is trying to avoid being arrested and wishes to be left alone by the officers.Wife Beneficence, non-injury The wife does not want to her husband to be arrested and does not want the help of the two officersOfficer Nixon and Officer Nook Justice The officers are there to seek the truth and justice of the crimes that have been committed. Even though the case may be thrown out of court the officers do have the warmth of the car as evidence to present to the court.Society Justice Society wants to make sure that the wife gets help against her husband for domestic violence. Society also wants to make sure that the streets are safe and if the husband is behind the wheel at the double the legal limit of alcohol then he is putting himself and society in harm.Evaluating Alternatives4. What are two alternatives for the scenario? One alternative can be a wild card that you ordinarily may not consider an option because of potential implications. Both should be within free will and control of the same moral agent. Alternative AAlternative B5. Respond to the following questions based on your developed alternatives.Alternative A Alternative B What are the best- and worst-case scenarios if you choose this alternative?Will anyone be harmed if this alternative is chosen? If so, how will they be harmed? Consider families and derivative effects.Would honoring an idea or value—such as personal, professional, or religious—make the alternative invalid?Are there any rules, laws, or principles that support the alternative? Are there rules, laws, or principles that make t he alternative invalid? State the rule or principle and indicate if it invalidates or supports the alternative.Applying Ethical Guidelines6. Consider each ethical guideline and explain whether it would support or reject your alternative. Guidelines based on the action itself Alternative A Alternative B Should this alternative become a rule or policy that everyone in this situation should follow in similar situations in the future? (Kant)Does this alternative result in using any person as a means to an end without consideration for his or her basic integrity? (Kant)Is the intent of this action free from vested interest or ulterior motive? (Kant’s good will)Does this alternative demonstrate a genuine concern for others affected by the decision, and is the moral agency responding to a perceived need?Guidelines based on consequences Alternative A Alternative B Is the good that results from this alternative outweighed by the potential harm that might be done to others? (Millâ€⠄¢s harm principle)Is any harm brought about by anyone other than the moral agent? (causal harm)Will anyone be harmed who can be said to be defenseless? (paternalism)To what degree is this alternative based on the moral agent’s own best interest? (ethical egoism)Which alternative will generate the greatest benefit—or the least amount of harm—for the greatest number of people? Select only one alternative. (utilitarianism)Ethical Decision Making7. Choose to proceed with either Alternative A or Alternative B and explain the reasons for your decision.

ADHD Disorder In Public Media Analysis - 909 Words

Public media is often critical of the ADHD disorder diagnosis; more specifically, the prevalence of diagnosis, drawing disparaging links to pharmaceutical companies profiting from a social-culturally constructed disorder of the Western world. Some have reacted to the presence and prevalence of this disorder with serious enquiry and investigation. However, argued here within, even such attempts neglect to consider the behavioural and observable characteristic individual’s suffering from the disorder experience, opting instead to ignore or stratify qualitative characteristics to numeric representations, potentially forgoing the human side of the disorder. One such article, written by Devon Frye, published in ADDitude Magazine examines the†¦show more content†¦Additionally, Frye assertion that revisions of the DSM (Diagnostic Statistical Manual), specifically DSM-III, DSM-III-R, and DSM-IV, have somehow contributed to the â€Å"looser† (Frye, 2015, p. 1) parame ters of diagnostic criteria thereby increasing the prevalence or frequency of diagnoses. Once again, Frye generalizes the purpose of the DSM diagnostic criteria and fails to clarify that revision are a direct result of comprehensive investigation and examination of new or different findings within mental health. Recognizing that Frye’s juxtaposition of the study’s results may not fully represent a comprehensive interpretation of the actual study findings is considered here to follow. The first consideration relates to the methodology selected for this study; a meta-analysis. In an attempt to provide evidence-based support to the prevalence of diagnosis or, as noted in the study literature, provide a â€Å"benchmark pooled prevalence† (Thomas, Sanders, Doust, Beller, Glaszioys, 2015, p. 1), Thomas and colleagues undertook an extensive meta-analysis where 433 studies occurring worldwide during the past 36 years (1977-2013) were evaluated based on inclusion/exclusion criteria, of which the data from 175 studies, and â€Å"four data sets with same cohort† (Thomas et al., p. 5), using different DSM criteria were included. Additionally, the researchers further stratified the data to investigate if a specific edition orShow MoreRelatedAttention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder ( Adhd )1692 Words   |  7 Pagesday, people move at a lightning pace to keep themselves afloat in a never ending sea of tasks and goals. For individuals with ADD, managing to keep their own personal boat on course is difficult. 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An Interesting And Informative Video - 1031 Words

This was an interesting and informative video, which talks about epigenetic. I would define epigenetic as a change in the observable physical traits of an organism without a change in the inherited genetic of a cell. In the video, there were people (twins) and rats as an example just to show and explain how epigenetic works, which is amazing. The twins’ participants in the video, look alike. Even though, their spotting image are incredible, they also have their differences. Like one of the twin asked an important question, which was if one of them has a disease, will it be possible for the other one to have the same disease and actually, there might be a chance for the other twin to develop the same disease, which shows me how mysterious epigenetic is. There are two articles that I found, which gave a lot of informations about epigenetic and explained how the process of epigenetic works and how weird it can be. 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